Table 2 The in vivo effects of IONPs

Rat (Intratracheal instillation)

Fe₃O₄

<50

1 and 5 mg kg⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Reduction of body weight [68]

Rat (Oral)

Fe₂O₃

30

30, 300, and 1000 mg kg⁻¹ day⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Significant inhibition of Na⁺–K⁺, Mg²⁺, and Ca²⁺ ATPases in brain, reduction of body weight in high dose, and reduced activity of acetyl choline esterase in the brain in high dose [64]

Rat (Intranasal)

Fe₂O₃

36

20 µg µL⁻¹

APTS

Amine

Significant increased oxidative stress and delay in removing of NPs from stratum and hippocampus [55]

Rat (Intravascular injection)

Fe₂O₃

10

50 mg kg⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Significantly decreased dopamine in striatum and dopaminergic neurons damage [39]

Rat# (Injection into stratum)

Fe₃O₄

6.5 ± 3.0

3 µg NP 2 µL⁻¹ in a CSF

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Increased body weight and reduction of oxidative stress in stratum [60]

Mouse (Intravascular injection)

Fe₃O₄

5

0.4, 2, and 10 µg kg⁻¹

PEG

Hydroxyl

Induction of oxidative stress and DNA damage in heart [69]

Drosophila (Exposure)

Fe₃O₄

20

200 μg mL⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Significant reduced ROS levels, enhanced climbing ability, and increased longevity in six-week-old flies [40]

Green algae (Raphidocelis subcapitata) (Exposure)

Fe₂O₃

33.3*

1–100 mg L⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Inhibition of growth by coated and uncoated NPs after 72 h [70]

50.4*

1–100 mg L⁻¹

dimercaptosuccinic acid

Thiol and Carboxyl

Duckweed (Lemna minor) (Exposure)

Fe₂O₃

33.3*

1–100 mg L⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Unaffected by NPs in this range of doses [70]

50.4*

1–100 mg L⁻¹

dimercaptosuccinic acid

Thiol and Carboxyl

Water fleas (Daphnia magna) (Exposure)

Fe₂O₃

33.3*

10–100 mg L⁻¹

None (bare)

Hydroxyl

Significant toxicity, the ingestion and accumulation of coated and uncoated IONPs in the gastrointestinal tract [70]

50.4*

1–100 mg L⁻¹

Dimercaptosuccinic acid

Thiol and Carboxyl